How to develop a Training Program

The process of creating a training program to help develop an individual's level of fitness comprises of 6 stages:

Stage 1

The first stage is to gather details about the individual:

1. Age
2. Reasons for wanting to get fit
3. Current or recent injuries
4. Health problems
5. The sports they play and how often
6. Their dislikes and likes with regards training
7. What sports facilities they have access to - gym, sports centre etc.

Prior to starting any training, it is recommended you have a medical examination to ensure it is safe for you to do so.

Stage 2

The second stage is to determine what components of fitness they need to improve. This will depend upon what the individual wants to get fit for - to improve general fitness, get fit enough to play in the Saturday hockey league, run a local 5 km fun run or compete in next year's London Marathon.

Exercise scientists have identified nine elements that comprise the definition of fitness. 

The following lists each of the nine elements and an example of how they are used:

1. Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against resistance (holding or restraining an object or person)
2. Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive burst of movements (Jumping or sprint starting)
3. Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid succession in opposing directions (ZigZag running or cutting movements)
4. Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a handstand) or while moving (e.g. a gymnastics stunt)
5. Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being impeded by excess tissue, i.e. fat or muscle (Executing a leg split)
6. Local Muscle Endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work (Rowing or cycling)
7. Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles and their ability to use it (Running long distances)
8. Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contracture time after time (Continuous explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)
9. Coordination - the ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective movements are achieved

Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to develop as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation. You will need to consider which of these elements are applicable to the individuals training program based on what it is they want to get fit for.

Stage 3

The next stage is to identify appropriate tests that can be used to initially determine the individual's level of fitness and then to monitor progress during the training. The Evaluation Test page identifies suitable tests for each of the fitness elements.

Identified test should be conducted and the results recorded.

Stage 4

We now know the individual's background, objectives and current level of fitness. We now need to conduct a gap analysis of the current fitness levels (from test results at stage 3) and target fitness levels (identified at stage 2). The results of this process will assist in the design of the training program so that each component of fitness is improved to the desired level.

The following is an example of a gap analysis:

Test	Fitness Component	Current	Target
Multistage Fitness Test	Aerobic	Level 12 Shuttle 2	Level 12 Shuttle 5
30 metre acceleration Test	Speed	4.3 seconds	3.9 seconds
Illinois agility run Test	Agility	20 seconds	<16 seconds
Standing Long Jump Test	Leg power	2.4 metres	2.8 metres
Over head medicine ball throw	Arm power	16.1 metres	16 metres

Gap analysis - Aerobic fitness and arm power are good and just need to be maintained - sprint, agility and leg power tests are below target - leg power needs to be improved.

Stage 5

The next stage is to prepare a training program using the results of the gap analysis and FITT principles.

1. frequency - how often should the individual exercise?
2. intensity - how hard should the individual exercise?
3. time - how long should each session last?
4. training activity - what exercise or training activity will help achieve the individual's fitness goals?

For frequency, intensity and time you should start at an easy level and increase gradually e.g. 10% increments. Aerobic training should last for 20 to 40 minutes. Strength work should last 15 to 30 minutes and comprise of 3 sessions a week with 48 hours recovery between sessions.

Plan the program in four week cycles where the workload in the first three weeks increase each week (easy, medium, hard) and the fourth week comprises of active recovery and tests to monitor training progress. The aim of the four week cycles is to: 

1. Build you up to a level of fitness (3 weeks)
2. Test, recovery and adjustment of the training program (1 week)
3. Build you up to higher level of fitness (3 weeks)
4. Test, recovery and adjustment of the training program (1 week)
5. Build you up to an even higher level of fitness (3 weeks)
6. and so on

The tests used to assess the individual's initial level of fitness should be planned into week 4 of the program in order to monitor progress and effectiveness of the program. The test results can be used to adjust the program accordingly.

Stage 6

The program has now been agreed and the individual can undertake the program. Every 4 weeks meet and discuss with the individual:

1. How the training has gone
2. The test results
3. Progress towards target fitness levels
4. Adjustments to the training program

Example programs

The following are example training programs:

1. Develop general fitness for team sports
2. Develop general strength using dumbbells
3. Training to run a marathon
4. Page Reference

The reference for this page is:

MACKENZIE, B. (2004) How to develop a Training Program [WWW] Available from: http://www.brianmac.co.uk/plant.htm [Accessed 5/10/2011]

Latihan ketika off-season

Latihan ketika off season adalah fasa penting dalam setiap periodisasi sukan. Latihan ketika ini tidak hanya membantu atlet memulih secara fizikal dan psikologi tetapi juga menyediakan diri untuk latihan dan perlawanan seterusnya. Untuk sesuatu latihan adalah penting menentukan peridisasi latihan untuk sekurang-kurang tempoh setahun dengan mengetahui bila perlawanan, perlawanan mana yang diberi keutamaan dan yang kurang utama, bila masa rehat, bercuti dan sebagainya.

Prinsip-prinsip Latihan

Prinsip Perbezaan Individu

Prinsip ini bermaksud, setiap individu berbeza, memiliki keunikan tersendiri. Disebabkan perbezaan masing-masing, program untuk setiap orang mungkin berbeza. Satu program tidak semestinya sesuai untuk semua. Program latihan yang direka perlu berdasarkan perbezaan individu. Perbezaan ini mungkin berkait dengan saiz badan, bentuk badan, genetik, pengalaman, kecederaan yang mungkin ada, jantina, umur dan sebagainya. Jadi, untuk merangka sesuatu program yang berkesan perlu mengenalpasti berbezaan. Sebagai contoh, perempuan memerlukan masa pemulihan yang lebih berbanding lelaki.

Periodisasi

Periodisasi atau periodization adalah satu istilah yang digunapakai dalam merangka jadual sesuatu sukan atau rangka senaman. Sukan berlainan memerlukan periodasasi yang berbeza melainkan mempunyai gerak yang sama. Sebagai contoh, karate dan tomoi, badminton dan squash, yang mana boleh menggunakan periodisasi yang sama. Tetapi penyusunan periodisasi perlu bergantung pada pencapaian dan tahap individu juga. Tidak semestinya pemain A dan pemain B mempunyai keupayaan yang sama. Sebagaimana yang dinyatakan dalam entri prinsip latihan, prinsip perbezaan individu.

Pelan periodisasi asas biasanya dipecahkan kepada empat fasa. Tempoh masa setiap fasa bergantung kepada beberapa faktor seperti jarak pertandingan, mengambil kira pemulihan dan sebagainya. Pelan latihan dipecahkan kepada dua iaitu kitaran makro (macro cycle) dan kitaran mikro (micro cycle).

Fasa 1: Persediaan Fizikal Umum

Peringkat awal latihan adalah untuk menyediakan diri dari segi persediaan otot, sendi, sistem-sistem badan yang lain seperti sistem kardiovaskular, sistem saraf, sistem hormonal dan sebagainya untuk menerima latihan yang diberi. Persediaan fizikal adalah perlu untuk pemulihan, pengukuhan, membaik pulih kelemahan yang mungkin timbul disebabkan rehat atau dalam keadaan tanpa latihan juga bagi yang baru memulakan latihan. Latihan yang dilakukan banyak tetapi berintensiti rendah. Saya pernah masukkan entri sistem latihan sebelum ini dimana pada peringkat awal, perlu lakukan neuromuscular facilitation.

Sebagai contoh, bagi mereka yang belum pernah berlatih atau bersenam, melakukan bench press itu sesuatu yang baru. Jadi boleh dimulakan dengan bar kosong (jika mampu) dan hanya memahirkan pergerakan. Bagi perempuan mungkin agak sukar menggunakan bar olimpik yang mana beratnya 44 lbs, sekitar 20 kg, jadi boleh menggunakandumbbell atau mesin (jika ada). Contoh lain, atlet bola keranjang yang mana boleh lakukan lontaran bola ke dinding. Atlet profesional boleh mencecah ratusan ribu lontaran untuk mencapai ketepatan balingan.

Atlet tahap tinggi biasanya mengambil masa yang singkat untuk fasa ini, begitu juga bagi mereka yang mengekalkan tahap kecergasan sepanjang tahun. Mereka yang baru mungkin mengambil masa yang lebih panjang bergantung pada benchmark atau tahap pencapaian yang ditetapkan atau disasarkan.

Fasa 2: Persediaan Fizikal Khusus

Latihan pengkhususan dimulakan apabila berakhir fasa persediaan umum. Latihan pada masa ini khusus kepada kemahiran sukan. Sebagai contoh, seorang perenang berlatih backstroke yang mana merupakan kemahiran khusus. Disamping kemahiran, latihan kekuatan juga diperlukan. Sebagai contoh, backstroke memerlukan kekuatan otot tangan, bahu, belakang dan dada, jadi latihan kekuatan ditumpukan di situ. Latihan kekuatan boleh dilakukan di gymnasium, menggunakan latihan rintangan tanpa peralatan seperti menggunakan rakan latihan (partner), dan sebagainya. Terdapat pelbagai jenis latihan kekuatan yang boleh dipelbagainya mengikut jenis sukan.

Fasa persediaan fizikal khusus ini adalah fasa yang sangat penting dalam pembangunan atlet. Fasa ini yang menjadi penentu perbezaan antara atlet dimana setiap negara cuba mencari yang terbaik untuk atlet mereka. China dengan sistem latihan nya tersendiri, Amerika dengan cara mereka dan sebagainya. Negara maju biasanya akan memiliki kajian dan pembangunan mereka sendiri.

Fasa 3: Pertandingan

Ketika fasa ini, penerapan lebih diberikan kepada perancangan strategi dan pembangunan psikologi. Ketika musim pertandingan, latihan lebih kepada untuk mengekalkan keupayaan dan prestasi. Setiap jenis sukan akan menumpukan latihan pada aspek berbeza. Sebagai contoh, sukan beladiri akan menumpukan pada latihan kuasa. Latihan juga diberi tidak keterluan untuk mengelak terlebih latihan (over training)

Fasa 4: Peralihan

Tidak kira sukan apa, atlet perlu melalui peringkat pemulihan dan persediaan untuk berehat. Semasa musim kompetitif, tekanan psikologi biasanya agak tinggi. Bayangkan apabila Dato Lee Chong Wei berdepan dengan Lin Dan. Pada masa rehat, minda juga perlu rehat dan bersedia menghadapi musim baru.

Kajian dan Pembangunan

Tiada penetapan jenis latihan yang terbaik untuk sesuai sukan. Sentiasa ada kajian yang dijalankan untuk mencari latihan dan cara terbaik. Jika latihan ‘A’ terbaik pada masa ini, mungkin 10 tahun akan datang ada latihan yang lebih baik. Malaysia pun ada pusat kajiannya di Institut Sukan Negara (ISN).

Coaching types

In the last few weeks I have been reflecting a lot about the evolution of the coaching profession. When I started my career in Sport, I was more interested in coaching than sports science, later on I drifted to science, mainly because I am the kind of person mostly interested in evidence and numbers, in structures and processes and find difficult to get lost in philosophies and opinions which unfortunately still permeate part of the coaching community.

In my view, coaching is teaching. It is about making people better, and it is about "igniting" passion for something. Coaching is about facilitating the expression of talents as well as instilling a culture of hard and honest work and passion for the activity the athlete is doing.

So, when I was coaching, I aspired to be a great teacher, a great motivator, a man with a plan able to communicate clearly to my athletes what we were doing and why and I tried to measure and understand most of what I was doing in order to separate the good from the bad. In my view at the time, a great coach was also an excellent communicator, and was somebody able to facilitate creativity within a structure of play (I was a Handball coach after all). 

As a Strength and Conditioning coach I was clear about my role: I had to make my athletes stronger and faster and robust enough to endure training and competition. Over the years my career has taken different directions, from pure science to scientific support to managing holistic approaches to performance. In such roles I have met many coaches and practitioners with my daily interactions, but I also came across many individuals in coaching conferences, workshops and seminars and also on the Internet. I have to say that over the years I learnt to "box" coaches according to the way they work and would like to share this on my blog. This is not a critique to the people working in a coaching role, but is a tongue-in-cheek  blog which I hope it can be used for self reflection to understand where the coaching career is going and also be used as a guide for young sports scientists.

1. The multi-medal winner who is always right

This is challenging coach to work with. He/She has won everything there was to win, has been successful over the years and is grounded on his/her beliefs of what works and what does not work. In general, the multi medal winner is obsessed with (old) routines and thinks that his/her way is the ONLY way to improve performance and win. The only way to win his/her trust is learn about his work, collect evidence. Build and collect evidence and he/she will listen to you. With no evidence your philosophy and your beliefs count nothing. After all, he/she has won everything, not you, so why should the coach listen to you?

2. The motivator

The motivator gets incredible attention from staff and athletes. He/She can get anybody to climb mount Everest. He/She is capable of inspiring the most incredible performances. However most of the times he/she is completely disorganised. Cannot put together a structured plan with a sense, improvises and has no idea why certain things work and what does not work. If you work with a motivator coach you will always be in a great environment but unstructured and random. So what you will need as a sports scientist is organization and structure. The motivator suffers from ego-boosts periods when things go well and excessive rehearsals of Al Pacino's any given sunday speeches when things go pear shaped, so be ready for loads of pep talks and inspirational videos.

3. The Lecturer

This coach is going to lecture everybody, his/her athletes and hi/her staff. However, just like any university lecturer, few times athletes and staff will fall asleep...The lecturer coach is always prepared (to give a lecture) but most of the times what he lectures about is not what he/she coaches. He is too busy to put together cool quotes to self reflect and find out that what he thinks he/she is doing is not what is happening. Sports science support to a lecturer coach is challenging as it means many times falling into the trap of producing power point slides to get to your points. If you end up working with somebody like that, get ready for death by power point and numerous hours of meetings in which you will be lectured.

4. The pseudo-science guru

This one is fascinating. This is the guru. The one that also has sometimes cargo-cult science following. He/she is always right just like the first type, is a great motivator and a lecturer. Is the combination of all of the above. What makes this type more dangerous than others is that this coach reads stuff. Blogs, books, articles in Russian, philosophy theories, books nobody has read or can buy, and has a side interest in physics. This type comes up with new terms previously unknown to mankind and claims facts that were published in some obscure journals (or on the walls of a cave) which helped him/her develop the new theory of coaching. This one is lethal, because will challenge any sports scientists using collections of sciency words in random order and will confuse you so badly that at times you will think that what you learnt in your degrees was just a pile of nonsense. He/she has a following after all, and everyone wants to work with him/her. So if you question or refuse to accept the mumbo jumbo you will be quickly dismissed as an innominato, a non believer. Best way to work with this type? Get your facts right, über right! Make sure you translate the mumbo jumbo in something meaningful and take your time to understand how he/she works. Sometimes great gifts are given in ugly packages, so you might learn something new if you listen but this happens rarely. Many times you will shake your head in disbelief and will have to challenge the non sense using scientific facts. Be prepared, as the pseudo-science guru does not like to be contradicted, so unless you are really really good and absolutely correct, you might lose your job before you know it. 

5. The Artist

The artist creates. He/She is never prepared. There is no structure, no plan, no thinking forward, no idea of what happened last week. Nothing, nada de nada. The Artist coach will surprise you with curve balls coming from everywhere. His/Her plans (which reside only in his/her head) will be always changed at the last minute. Whatever you agreed to do will have to change. So if you work with this type, better learn how to sail and read the wind, as the working journey with this type will take you to places you have never been before...This type should come with a warning if you have OCD and/or love structured plans.

6. The Bully

The bully is a coaching type you can come across frequently. This type is very popular in team sports and combat sports (stereotyping...I know...). This type is loved by CEOs of team sports clubs and tends to get hired to replace another coach when the season is going badly. It is in fact popular belief with general managers and CEOs of sports club (should write something about them as well...) that when a team is not performing you need to hire a bully as many times the perception from the boardroom is that the athletes and staff are not "working hard enough". The bully comes in, shouts at everyone constantly and controls everything. The bully does not like freedom of expression nor alternative ideas. With the bully you execute and you have to be prepared to have a shouting match. With the bully heated discussions do not happen behind closed doors, they happen on the field, in front of anybody (that's why he/she is a bully!). The bully has a plan most of the times (in his head), and when shared with staff and players it is fixed. The bully does not grasp the concept of progressive overload (in fact, the word progressive does not belong to his/her vocabulary). The periodisation plan of the bully is affected by good and bad results. Bad results = massive increase in training volume and intensity, good results = constant high volume and intensity. 

8. The friend coach

The friend coach is the nice guy. The one that sometimes even when results are bad can't be fired because "he is such a nice guy". The nice guy reads a lot of psychology and sociology. The nice guy does not shout and will refer any sign of DOMS to the medical team for an MRI (just in case). The friend coach cares about the health of the athletes, their families, the staff and the fans. He/She wants to make sure everyone is happy. The friend coach likes questionnaires, psychological profiling and likes to talk. His/her training approach has solid pedagogical foundations. It's the Montessori approach to training in fact! The friend coach has a plan, but this is discussed with the athletes and staff. Everyone has a say and in the end nobody has a plan as most of the times the friend coach facilitates an anarchic system where everybody does whatever he/she likes to do when they like to do it. As a sports scientist supporting the friend coach you will need to be firm and organised (but this is a trait you need anyway for every other coach) as otherwise you will not get much done. New iterations of the friend coach these days contain "new age" elements. Sometimes in fact training sessions can be performed barefoot and with soft music in the background (have you ever tried to lift weights with Mozart's music blasted in the gym?). He/she can take you to a camping trip so you can all bond and/or perform a training session in weird/remote places. When a friend coach is sacked there are lots of tears and teams might need weeks of therapy to recover from the loss. This is very different from the sacking of a bully coach where teams celebrate the release with fireworks displays.

9. The Statistician

The Statistician loves his/her numbers. Very common coaching type in CGS (centimetres,grams or seconds) sports. The statistician knows how fast Usain Bolt run when he was 11 and has learnt mnemonically the World ranking in his and other events for the last 30 years. The statistician make s use of numbers and loves numbers. His/her training sessions are detailed. You will know how much, how many times, how fast/slow, with what cadence and sometimes you might have add-ons like breathing rate! The statistician will get your brain going, so make sure you learn all key times and bring a calculator as sometimes you may fall into the trap of believing the numbers to find out later that they were utterly wrong (sometimes!). The statistician also loves predicting performances. He/she is able to tell you fast somebody will run/swim/cycle just by knowing how many push ups/medicine ball throws the athlete performs together with his body mass, speed in specific distances and age. How does he/she do that? Easy! The statistician uses secret formulas which were developed in East Germany in the 50s and were obtained from another coach after winning a drinking competition in a Bar in Budapest or exchanged for a box of cigars before the Berlin wall came down. The formula has also been "improved" by the statistician coach over the years adding a k he/she developed which improves the precision of the predictions. If you think you can go on PubMed and look for the formula you are a fool. There is no trace. Your best bet is to head to Budapest and try to find the Bar. Support to the statistician is relatively easy if you know your numbers and you provide evidence based reports. However, if you don't know or understand statistics, you are better off considering a career in another industry as this one takes no prisoners.

10. The SAS coach

One of my favourites and loved by everyone with OCD. The SAS coach applies military techniques to coaching and managing staff. Your morning meetings will be at 07 hundred hours (0700 am) and will start with a briefing. Anybody arriving late to anything will have to do 20 push ups. The SAS coach has a plan, everything is planned to detail with exact times and list of activities. Meetings are sharp and run on strict agendas and end with a series of actions. Athletes and staff know their roles and responsibilities. There is no place for complacency, no compromise means no compromise. When SAS coach asks you to do something, he/she is not asking. It's an order. Training sessions are built on solid routines. Everything is built on solid routines. The SAS coach is not a bully, but he/she can be at times. Definitively more organised than any other type, however sometimes lacks empathy. So some staff or athletes may get the "hairdryer" treatment at times, but the SAS coach means well. He/she demands excellence (and most of the times obtains it!). Not everybody can work with the SAS coach. The main aspect is to be incredibly well organised, have good routines and deliver consistent excellence.

So, my list is finished. Joking aside, in order to work with various coaches in a sports science role you need to:

• Understand how the coaches work, what is their experience/background and what their philosophy
• Learn about their approach/take notes/ask questions/observe/measure where possible
• Reinforce all the positive, anything that works
• Discuss what does not work when you have evidence and not when their philosophy does not match yours
• Be organised, have good plans, gather (relevant) data to improve the quality of service you can provide to the coach/athlete unit
• Remember you are part of the support team, not the main actor, your place is behind the scenes
• No one is indispensable
• If you get a chance, get some coaching qualifications and try to coach somebody in any sport, you will find out that putting the human performance puzzle together is not as easy as running an incremental test in a lab
• If you think you know everything it is time for you to move on, working with athletes of any level/age allows you to discover something new every day if you ask the right questions (or assess routinely certain aspects) and critically appraise what you do.
• Be prepared to have the difficult conversations (and many times you will be at the receiving end!)
• Never forget that when working with a team or an individual athlete everyone is trying to do the same thing (improving performance) but each member of the team might do it in a different way.
• Never lose sight of the big picture
  
  
  

How to Eat Carbs for Workouts and Recovery

Carbohydrates seem to be a very misunderstood macronutrient these days. There are some who believe consuming any carbohydrates will make you fat and unhealthy, while there are others who consume absolutely enormous amounts of carbohydrates, believing them to be the key to health. In reality the truth, as usual, is somewhere in the middle.

While carbohydrates are neither evil nor perfect, they can be an excellent choice to help you train harder and longer, and recover faster. Consuming some carbohydrates before and after your training can have some incredibly powerful benefits, which will help to maximize the results of your efforts.

Carbohydrates Before You Train

Purposeful consumption of carbohydrates 30-90 minutes before you exercise has two main benefits: to fuel your training as well as to preserve your muscle and liver glycogen, the latter of which is an important and underappreciated factor in the recovery process. So if you don't eat a meal within 1-1.5 hours of your strength workout, it might be a good idea to consume a protein/carbohydrate shake prior to your workout. 

If you have recently eaten a meal within 1-1.5 hours of working out then all you would need is a good protein-only shake to provide the necessary protein and branched chain amino acids for your workout. 

There is also another misconception that carbohydrate consumption is only beneficial for endurance activity that exceeds two hours in duration. Challenging that idea is an appreciable amount of research that shows carbohydrate consumption enhances high-intensity training lasting only an hour.

Consuming carbohydrates before training also stimulates the release of insulin, which in this case is a good thing. Insulin stimulates protein synthesis and prevents protein breakdown (in the presence of amino acids in the bloodstream). Protein synthesis and prevention of protein breakdown is maximized when insulin is within the range of 15-30mU/l.

This is roughly 3 times higher than normal fasting levels, and is easily met with a moderate-sized balanced meal or shake. In addition, blood levels of carbohydrates and insulin (as well as amino acids) are elevated above normal fasting levels for 3-6 hours after a meal, meaning that your pre-training carbohydrate intake will keep your insulin elevated within that maximal range until you are ready to eat again after you finish training.

Simply consuming 30-60 grams carbohydrates within 30-90 minutes before training will help you train hard, maintain your glycogen levels, and stimulate insulin to help maximize protein synthesis and inhibit protein breakdown.

Carbohydrates After You Train

While it is clear that consuming carbohydrates before you train will improve training performance and recovery, how about consumption after you train? Well, carbohydrate consumption after exercise will replenish the glycogen that was used up, as well keeping insulin elevated to maximize protein synthesis and inhibit protein breakdown (as long as adequate protein is also consumed).

Research has very clearly shown that consuming carbohydrates of any type after training will rapidly replenish glycogen, stimulate insulin, and improve performance in repeat tests. In fact, delaying intake for two hours after training can delay glycogen resynthesis, so it is best to consume within an hour of training completion.

Aim to consume 30-60 grams of carbohydrates within 60 minutes after you complete your training session to maximize your results. The amounts needed depend on the size and needs of the individual, as well as the duration and intensity of the training.

In the end, make sure you are fueling yourself properly before and after a workout to reap the greatest rewards from your efforts. This will help to fuel your session, spare and replenish glycogen levels, and stimulate insulin to maximize muscle protein synthesis and inhibit muscle protein breakdown.

Stail Jurulatih

Autokratik

Satu stail kejurulatihan yang bersifat “kuku besi”, kerana pada stail ini jurulatih mempunyai kuasa penuh terhadap sesuatu organisasi dan setiap keputusan yang hendak dibuat. Selain itu pada stail ini juga jurulatih merupakan ketua dan bukan pentadbir. Ini kerana beliau beranggapan beliau mempunyai pengalaman yang luas lebih mengetahui selok belok sesuatu acara sukan yang dilatihnya berbanding atlit. Oleh yang demikian atlit hanya perlu menurut segala perintah yang diarahkan disebabkan kurangnya penglaman dan pengetahuan. Secara tidak langsung akan memberikan efek kepada atlit sekaligus merencatkan perkembangan dan prestasi atlit tersebut. Stail kejurulatihan seperti ini tidak sesuai untuk digunakan keatas atlit professional tetapi sesuai iuntuk atlit amatur terutamanya bagi atlit yang berada dibangku sekolah rendah iaitu berumur dibawah 12 tahun.

Demokratik

Merupakan satu stail kejurulatihan yang bersifat terbuka keatas atlit-atlitnya. Selain itu, jurulatih yang berprifil seperti ini kebiasaanya memberi peluang kepada atlet-atletnya ataupun pihak luar untuk bersuara dan membentangkan pendapatnya untuk kebaikan mereka berdua. Jurulatih yang berprofil seperti ini kebiasaanya bersifat professional kerana mengambil kira pandangan suara pihak lain sebelum membuat sesuatu keputusan atau tindakan. Ini kerana jurulatih percaya keatas atlit yang muda bahawa mereka boleh melontarkan idea yang bernas dan sekaligus boleh berkembang atlit yang lebih bermotivasi dan matang apabila dewasa kelak jika mereka diberikan pendedahan dan peluang yang cukup dan berkeyakinan. Stail kejurulatihan seperti ini lebih sesuai digunakan keatas atlit-atlit professional dan kurang sesuai digunakan keatas atlit amatur.

Lassez faire

Merupakan satu stail kejurulatihan yang bersifat rendah yang membenarkan sesebuah organisasi atau aktiviti itu berjalan dengan sendirinya selain memberi organisasi itu sendiri yang membuat sesuatu keputusan berbanding jurulatih itu sendiri atau dengan kata lain jurulatih yang mengamalkan stail ini bersifat lepas tangan dan suka meletakkan sesuatu beban itu di bahu pihak lain. Jenis stail kejurulatihan ini tidak sesuai untuk digunakan sama ada keatas sesebuah organisasi ataupun keatas atlit-atlit terutamanya keatas atlit amatur kerana secara tidak langsung ianya akan memberi kesan keatas atlit itu sendiri dan membentuk satu tingkah laku yang tidak elok.

Behaviouristik

Pada stail ini jurulatih lebih banyak melakukan sesuatu tanpa mengikut undang-undang yang telah ditetapkan “mengikut hati” dan lebih percaya perkara yang hendak dilakukan itu lebih kepada kerja-kerja sukarela. Selain itu, beliau juga kurang kompeten dalam memberi panduan dan arahan keatas atlit iaitu beliau lebih mengharapkan bantuan daripada orang lain untuk membuat tindakan seperti pembantunya, pihak atasan atau pihak lain dan akibat daripadanya banyak kerja-kerja yang tertangguh dan tidak berjalan seperti yang diaturkan. Ini kerana pengetahuan beliau mengenai kejurulatihan tidak tepat banyak.

Etika Kejurulatihan

 

Berkelulusan / berkelayakan

Seseorang jurulatih itu perlulah mempunyai kelulusan dan kelayakan yang telah diakui oleh pihak tertentu sebelum menjadi seseorang jurulatih. Seperti yang telah ditetapkan, untuk menjadi seseorang jurulatih beliau perlulah mempunyai kelulusan yang telahditetapkan iaitu salah satunnya mempunyai 2 sijil sains sukan yang diiktiraf dan mempunyai tahap 2 sijil kejurulatihan. ini bagi mengelakkan atlit di bawah seliaan kita mamandang rendah keupayaan kita.

Berkelakuan baik

Jurulatih perlu mengamalkan etika sebagai jurulatih dari aspek tingkah laku seperti percakapan,sikap dan sebagainya.selain itu jurulatih juga perlu mempunyai kawalan diri yang baik iaitu berkelakuan yang boleh diterima umum iaitu seperti tidak bertindak secara liar ketika meraikan kemenagan dan ketika meratapi kekalahan.

Berdisiplin
Jurulatih wajib menepati masa seperti yang telah ditetapkan dan juga mematuhi segala peraturan dan undang-undang yang telah ditetapkan.

Bersikap positif
Seorang jurulatih perlu mempunyai semangat kesukanan yang tinggi iaitu sanggup untuk menerima kekalahan dengan baik dan tidak menimbulkan masalah. Selain itu jurulatih perlu sentiasa memkirkan adanya peluang kemenangan.

Peranan Jurulatih

(i) Pengatur strategi

Membentuk perancangan pembangunan sumber manusia jangka panjang untuk mempastikan pencapaian misi dan visi sesebuah organisasi.

(ii) Pengurus

Melibatkan kerja merancang,melaksana,mengurus dan mengawas kegiatan latihan.

(iii) Pereka bentuk

Mereka bentuk program,pembentukan objektif,menyusun kandungan kursus, merangka strategi, penyempaian dan merancang penilaian.

(iv) Rakan

Memberi ruang kepada atlit untuk meluahkan perasaan dan masalah dan masa untuk meneratkan hubungan antara jurulatuh dan atlet

(v) Pendidik

Jurulatih berperanan memberi maklumat berkaitan isu- isu sukan kepada atlet. Selain itu jurulatih juga bertanggungjawab dalam mengarahkan atlit untuk melakukan sesuatu selain membantu menyelesaikan masalah yang melanda atlet.

(vi) Pelatih

Jurulatih berperanan melatih atlet mencapai tahap prestasi terunggul. Jurulatih juga berperanan meningkatkan kecergasan atlet.

(vii) Perangsang/ Motivator

Jurulatih juga perlu menjadi sumber semanagat kepada atlet supaya atlet menghasilkan prestasi terbaik.

(viii) Penubuh tabung

Jurulatih perlu mengorganisasikan sesebuah pasukan dengan cara penubuhan tabung, contohnya tabung kebajikan atlit yang ditimpa bencana.

Ciri--ciri Jurulatih Yang Baik

Kecerdasan sukan/ Sport intelligence

Ciri jurulatih ini ialah, bersifat ingin tahu, kreatif, berfikiran terbuka. Selain itu, jurulatih juga dapat menilai sesuatu situasi sukan dengan cepat dan tepat. Jurulatih yang pandai telah melalui pelbagai pengalaman yang akan digunakan  sebagai peluang mempelajari lebih tentang atlet dan sukan.

Dorongan / Drive

Ciri-ciri jurulatih ini ialah, berorientasikan matlamat pencapaian. Cara jurulatih ini ialah, tidak akan menunggu sesuatu terjadi, tetapi akan membuatkan ia berkesan. Jurulatih juga tidak mudah berputus asa untuk meneruskan usaha walaupun pelbagai rintangan dihadapi.

Penyabar

Jurulatih mempunyai tahap kesabaran yang tinggi kerana bukan mudah untuk melatih atlet sehingga menjadi pakar dalam sesuatu bidang sukan. Peningkatan prestasi atlet dicapai  dengan perlahan dan mungkin kurang konsisten. Jurulatih perlu menetapkan standard pencapaian yang realistik supaya tidak mudah putus asa apabila tidak mencapai sesuatu matlamat.

Komitmen emosional

Jurulatih   perlu mempunyai komitmen sosial dengan atlet agar sebarang masalah timbul, dapat diatasi dengan pembincangan bersama. Hal ini akan menggalakkan respon positif daripada atlet.

Berpengetahuan

Jurulatih perlu menguasai peraturan-peraturan dalam sesuatu permainan, mahupun peraturan keselamatan. Selain itu, jurulatih perlu menguasai teknik dan taktik, pengetahuan berkenaan isu sukan  supaya prestasi atlet dapat meningkat.

Yakin

Seorang jurulatih yang mempunyai keyakinan diri yang tinggi akan dihormati oleh atlet. Hal ini memudahkan jurulatih untuk memberi arahan .

Endurance Training

The objective of endurance training is to develop the energy production systems to meet the demands of the event.

The energy production systems 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical compound that supplies energy for muscular contraction. Actively contracting muscles obtain ATP from glucose stored in the blood stream and the breakdown of glycogen stored in the muscles. Exercising for long periods of time will require the complete oxidation of carbohydrates or free fatty acids in the mitochondria.

The types of endurance 

The types of endurance are aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance and strength endurance. A sound basis of aerobic endurance is fundamental for all events.

Work conducted by Gastin (2001) provides estimates of anaerobic and aerobic energy contribution during selected periods of maximal exercise (95% effort).

Duration	% Aerobic	% Anaerobic
0 – 10 seconds	6	94
1 – 15 seconds	12	88
0 – 20 seconds	18	82
0 – 30 seconds	27	73
0 – 45 seconds	37	63
0 – 60 seconds	45	55
0 – 75 seconds	51	48
0 – 90 seconds	56	44
0 – 120 seconds	63	37
0 – 180 seconds	73	27
0 – 240 seconds	79	21

Aerobic Endurance

During aerobic (with oxygen) work, the body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be meet by the body's intake. The only waste products formed are carbon dioxide and water which are removed by sweating and breathing.

Aerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:

1. Short aerobic - 2 minutes to 8 minutes (lactic/aerobic)
2. Medium aerobic - 8 minutes to 30 minutes (mainly aerobic)
3. Long aerobic - 30 minutes + (aerobic)

Aerobic endurance is developed using continuous and interval running.

1. Continuous duration runs to improve maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max).
2. Interval training to improve the heart as a muscular pump

Aerobic threshold The aerobic threshold, point at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, is around 65% of maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats lower than the anaerobic threshold. The aerobic thresholds of untrained males range from 35 to 65% VO2 max. Anaerobic endurance During anaerobic (without oxygen) work, involving maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body into a state known as oxygen debt and lactic starts to accumulate in the muscles. This point is known as the lactic threshold or anaerobic threshold or onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). Activity will not be resumed until the lactic acid is removed and the oxygen debt repaid. The body can resume limited activity after a small proportion of the oxygen debt has been repaid. Since lactic acid is produced, the correct term for this pathway is lactic anaerobic energy pathway. The alactic anaerobic pathway is when the body is working anaerobically but without the production of lactic acid. This pathway depends on the fuel stored in the muscle which lasts for approximately 4 seconds at maximum effort. Anaerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows: Short anaerobic - less than 25 seconds (mainly alactic) Medium anaerobic - 25 seconds to 60 seconds (mainly lactic) Long anaerobic - 60 seconds to 120 seconds (lactic +aerobic) Anaerobic endurance can be developed by using repetition methods of high intensity work with limited recovery. Anaerobic threshold The anaerobic threshold, the point at which lactic acid starts to accumulates in the muscles, is considered to be somewhere between 80% and 90% of your maximum heart rate and is approximately 40 beats higher than the aerobic threshold. Your anaerobic threshold can be determined with anaerobic threshold testing. Speed endurance Speed endurance is used to develop the co-ordination of muscle contraction. Repetition methods are used with a high number of sets, low number of repetitions per set and intensity greater than 85% with distances covered from 60% to 120% of racing distance. Competition and time trials can be used in the development of speed endurance. Example sessions The following are the different types of speed endurance sessions with examples for a 800m athlete targeting a sub two minute 800m: Pyramids - 200m, 300m, 400m, 300m, 200m (frp) [3', 4', 5', 4'] Up the clock - 600m, 700m, 800m (frp) [8'] Down the clock - 800m, 700m, 600m (frp) [8'] Differentials - 4 x 400m (1st 200m 32", 2nd 200m 28") [8'] Over distance - 4 x 1200m (srp) [8'] Under distance - 2 x (3 x 400m) (frp) [3', 8'] Quality - 3 x 600m (rp) [8'] ' = minute,  " = seconds  frp = faster than target race pace srp = slower than target race pace  rp = target race pace Strength endurance Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete's capacity to maintain the quality of their muscles' contractile force. All athletes need to develop a basic level of strength endurance. Examples of activities to develop strength endurance are – circuit training, weight training, hill training, harness running, rattlek, ect. Effect on the heart As an endurance athlete, you will develop an athlete's heart which is very different to the non athlete's heart.  You will have: Bradycardia - Low resting pulse rate of under 50 bpm ECG shows ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the heart muscle wall) X-ray reveals an enlarged heart Blood tests shows raised muscle enzymes The above for the average person (non athlete) indicate a probable heart block, hypertension, heart failure, a recent myocardial infarct or cardiomyopathy. Should you need to go into hospital or see your doctor, you should inform them that you are an endurance athlete. References GASTIN, P.B. (2001) Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise. Sports Med, 31 (10), p. 725-741. McLELLAN, T. M. & SKINNER, J.S. (1981) The use of the aerobic threshold as a basis for training. Can J Appl Sport Sci. 6 (4), p. 197-201. Related References The following references provide additional information on this topic: DAVIS, J. A. et al. (1979) Anaerobic threshold alterations caused by endurance training in middle-aged men. Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology, 46 (6), p. 1039-1046 HELGGERUD, J. et al. (2001) Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (11), p. 1925-1931 TABATA, I. et al. (1996) Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 28 (10), p. 1327-1330