ASAS KAWALAN MOTOR

Kawalan motor merupakan bidang yang mengkaji postur dan pergerakan manusia serta mekanisme yang mengawalnya. Kawalan pergerakan ini dihasilkan oleh sistem biologi. Terdapat dua jenis lakuan motor iaitu:

Lakuan motor tanpa kemahiran (Involuntari)Lakuan pergerakan ini dihasilkan secara luar kawal. Ianya berlaku secara spontan dan dalam masa yang sangat singkat. Contohnya, pantulan lutut, tarikan tangan apabila terkena panas atau tercucuk benda tajam.

Lakuan motor berkemahiran (Voluntari)

Lakuan pergerakan ini dihasilkan secara sedar atau di dalam kawalan. Individu memeilih atau menentukan pergerakan yang ingin dilakukan. Perlakuan ini dibina melalui bakat, pengalaman, dan latihan. Mutu perlakuan yang dihasilkan dipengaruhi oleh faktor latihan yang berterusan dan pengalaman yang dilalui oleh seseorang atlet. Contohnya, melakukan sepakkan gunting di dalam permainan bola sepak, rejaman dalam permainan sepak takraw, jumping smash di dalam permainan badminton dan spike di dalam permainan bola tampar.

Kemahiran-kemahiran Pergerakan

• Kemahiran Generik – Kemahiran ini adalah kemahiran yang diwarisi. Kematangan individu berlaku secara semulajadi iaitu sejak lahir. Perubahan kematangan berlaku dengan cepat pada usia kanak-kanak dan berkurangan pada umur dua puluhan, contoh, pertumbuhan otot-otot.

•  Kemahiran Berobjektif – Kemahiran yang dipelajari dan mempunyai objektif khusus. Kemahiran ini dapat ditingkatkan melalui latihan yang kerap dan sistematik, contohnya di dalam acara lari pecut.

•  Kemahiran Motot Halus – Penggunaan otot-otot kecil  sebagai otot utama dalam pergerakan. Contohnya acara menembak, memanah dan boling padang.

•  Kemahiran Diskrit – Mempunyai titik permulaan dan titik pengakhiran yang spesifik. Melibatkan pergerakan pantas dan masa yan terhad. Contohnya, acara merejam lembing dan permainan sepak takraw iaitu di dalam masa yang singkat, pemain itu perlu melakukan kemahiran rejaman.

•  Kemahiran Berterusan – Melibatkan pergerakan yang sama dan dilakukan berulang-ulang kali dengan titik mula dan titik akhir, contohnya berenang, berlari atau berjalan.

•  Kemahiran Bersiri – Gabungan beberapa kemahiran diskrit yang dicantum secara bersiri. Terdapat fasa-fasa kepada pergerakan seterusnya, contoh di dalam acara lompat jauh, dimulakan dengan fasa berlari (lari landas), diikuti dengan fasa take off, seterusnya fasa layangan dan diakhiri dengan fasa mendarat.

•  Kemahiran Luar kawal – Kemahiran ini dihasilkan dalam persekitaran yang berubah-ubah. Semasa melakukan kemahiran ini, pemain dan objek berada di dalam keadaan bergerak dan tindakan pemain akan dipengaruhi oleh keadaan persekitaran.

•  Kemahiran Terkawal – Kemahiran ini dilakukan di dalam persekitaran yang stabil. Setiap pergerakan di kawal dan ditentukan sendiri oleh pelaku.

Perkembangan Motor

Perkembangan motor berkait rapat dengan perkembangan manusia iaitu dari lahir hingga tua. Ia merupakan bidang pengajian berkaitan dengan perubahan dalam prestasi motor hasil interaksi antara manusia dengan persekitaran yang berlaku sepanjang hayat. Perubahan motor berlaku akibat:

• Proses perkembangan

• Tumbesaran

• Kematangan

• Penuaan

Sebagai contoh, apabila seseorang itu matang dari segi perkembangan motor, kemahiran di dalam aktiviti sukan seperti menjaringkan bola keranjang menjadi semakin bagus. Terdapat dua aspek perkembangan motor, iaitu:

• Peningkatan Keupayaan

• Peringkat dari bayi kea lam dewasa

• Kemahiran motor dipelajari daripada kecil hingga dewasa

• Dari perilaku reflex bayi (kecil) ke perilaku kompleks (kematangan)

Penurunan Keupayaan

• Peringkat dari dewasa ke tua

• 50% manusia akan mencapai ketingian maksimum pada awal dewasa

• Usia 70an, manusia akan hilang ketinggian sebanyak 2-4 cm akibat perubahan postur dan tekanan kepada tulang belakang

• Selepas usia matang, sistem dan fungsi tubuh manusia mengalami penurunan keupayaan (hilang upaya).

Pembelajaran Kemahiran Motor

Kemahiran motor merupakan pergerakan yang melibatkan otot-otot pada anggota badan. Dinger (1972) telah menguraikan domain psikomotor  mengikut kemampuan motor (motor abilities) iaitu ciri-ciri afektif dan kemampuan kognitif. Fartel (1960) menghuraikan kemahiran motor dibahagiakan kepada tiga bahagian iaitu:

• Cyclic – seperti berjalan, berlari, berenang, lumba basikal yang melibatkan pergerakan yang berulang

• Acylic – kemahiran ini gabungan dari kesempurnaan ybagai contoh, kemahiran bagi permainan badminton adalah hasil gabungan hayunan transisi, pukulan rotation dan langkah di mana dilakukan di dalam satu kerja.

• Gabungan Acylic – gabungan cylic dan diikuti oleh pergerakan acylic. Kemahiran ini melibatkan semua jenis lompatan bagi acara padang dan balapan.

Penting Bersarapan Pagi

Bentuk badan yang kurus dan langsing menjadi idaman setiap wanita terutama mereka yang mengambil berat soal penampilan diri. 

Justeru ramai wanita hari ini sibuk mengira kandungan kalori setiap kali memeriksa label makanan, sedangkan apa yang mereka perlu titik beratkan ialah mengambil makanan yang memenuhi khasiat pemakanan yang diperlukan oleh tubuh badan.

Amalan pemakanan yang bijak ialah makan supaya sentiasa sihat bukan makan untuk merampingkan badan. 

Ini kerana tubuh badan kita memerlukan jumlah protein, karbohidrat, vitamin, mineral dan air yang mencukupi, di samping sedikit lemak untuk kekal sihat. 

Oleh itu jangan mengurangkan makanan demi merampingkan badan kerana diet yang tidak mencukupi selalunya akan menyebabkan keletihan, kurang bertenaga serta kurang konsentrasi, di mana akhirnya membuatkan seseorang lesu dan pucat lesi.

Bermulalah setiap hari dengan mengambil sarapan yang berkhasiat, seperti bijirin sarapan yang mudah disediakan dan membantu anda menjadi ramping dan sihat. 

Ramai tersilap anggap, dengan tidak mengambil sarapan dapat mengurangkan kalori makanan mereka. 

Sekiranya mereka bertabiat tidak mengambil sarapan pagi, lazimnya mereka akan mengambil makanan berlebihan ketika makan tengah hari dan pada waktu-waktu lain. 

Amalan ini tentunya tidak sihat dan mengakibatkan mereka akan menambah jumlah kandungan kalori dan jumlah lemak yang diambil di dalam masa satu hari.

Meninggalkan sarapan pagi adalah tidak baik untuk kesihatan kerana, selepas semalaman tanpa makan, akan menyebabkan kandungan glukosa dalam darah menjadi rendah di sebelah pagi. 

Kandungan glukosa yang rendah di dalam darah boleh membawa kepada pelbagai masalah fisiologi dan fizikal seperti pening, pitam, lesu, lenguh, sakit-sakit badan, mudah marah dan sering dihantui dengan perasaan bimbang.

Memilih sarapan yang berkhasiat pada setiap pagi adalah sangat penting bagi menghasilkan diet seimbang. 

Bijirin sarapan pagi dengan susu adalah pilihan paling ringkas dan lengkap bagi orang dewasa yang menjalani kehidupan yang agrasif dan aktif. 

Mereka yang makan bijirin untuk sarapan pagi akan mendapat lebih banyak bekalan vitamin, mineral dan serat. Sarapan pagi akan menyediakan 25% daripada jumlah kalori atau tenaga harian. 

Kunci kesihatan yang baik dan mengidamkan tubuh badan yang ramping ialah penjagaan diet harian yang sempurna, kerap melakukan senaman sedarhana, serta rehat dan tidur yang secukupnya. 

Diet yang seimbang juga akan memberi tenaga untuk berkerja secara optimum sambil menjadikan sesorang itu sentiasa ceria dan seksi.

ATTRIBUTES OF A SUCCESSFUL COACH

Experience and Knowledge

Knowledge of the game is very important. You don’t need to be a great player to be a great coach. It has been proved that some of the best coaches in the game have not necessarily been the best players. John Madden, the celebrated NFL coach never played a single game of professional football; Sven Goran Eriksson was not a great soccer player and John Buchanan had not played more than 7 first class matches. What all these people have in common is an in depth knowledge an understanding of the game. They all have this ability to observe and absorb. Recognize, Analyze and Strategize, and this things come with experience. They did not become a top coach overnight, but spent years in the sidelines before they moved into coaching a top team.

The coach need to recognize the team’s strengths and weaknesses and work on them, just as he works on the individual’s strengths and weaknesses. Modern coaching has also involved the use of technology to capture ball by ball data and digital video to study these attributes and the coach shouldn’t shun away from them.

No matter how good a coach is, sometimes they do need assistance and they have to acknowledge and act on it. You may need a specialist coach to help in a certain aspect of the game and the coach shouldn’t let ego get in the way of  several assistant coaches. You have a defensive coach, an offensive coach and a special teams coach. Even the quarterback and wide receiver have their own special coaches.

Excellent Communication Skills

The coach needs to communicate with his players effectively. This not only means how to articulate what he expects of his players and explain what they need to do, but to also listen to them and act as their counsel. This is an area where a foreign coach many have problems with Malaysian players in general.

Good communication with the player alone is not enough. The coach also needs to establish a good communication and rapport with all parties that involve directly with their sports. More than anyone else, the coach should know what kind of information shouldn’t leave the dressing room. A coach’s unhappiness over the selection and his personal opinion of some players is certainly not one that should leave the confines of the dressing room.

Enjoy the Confidence of The Players

The players need to recognize that the coach is working for the greater good of the team and the advice he gives is for the improvement of the individual player. The recognition comes with trust and trust is gained by winning games and getting the right result. If the team isn’t winning, then the coach needs to instill team spirit and self belief so that they can start winning. Trust creates a sense of community and makes it easier for people to work together.

It takes a lot more to gain someone’s trust than to loose it. If Greg Chappell had expressed his opinion to the players directly behind closed doors, he would have still had the trust of his players, but by taking it directly into the media, he has made the coach-player relationship vary fragile.

A Clear and Target

A coach should be able to create a strong vision. He should be able to set clear goals for the team and individual players. The coach should also be flexible. He should be flexible enough to try something else. The modern coach has to have the ability to think outside the box. He shouldn’t be afraid to rock the boat if that is what it takes to get it to an even keel.

1. Respectful
2. Patient
3. Assertive
4. Supportive
5. Enthusiastic

ASAS PSIKOLOGI DALAM KAWALAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN MOTOR

PENDEKATAN KLASIK

ANDAIAN-ANDAIAN PENDEKATAN PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

1. Berbagai peringkat proses mental berlaku antara penerimaan rangsangan dan penghasilan respon.
2. Sekuen peringkat pemprosesan bermula dengan penerimaan rangsangan.
3. Tiap-tiap peringkat pemprosesan beroperasi hanya ke atas maklumat yang ada.
4. Di setiap peringkat, pemprosesan terjemahan ke atas maklumat yang diterima  (proses yang memakan masa berlaku)
5. Apabila proses terjemahan maklumat selesai di satu peringkat, maklumat yang telah diterjemah akan dihantar ke peringkat berikutnya.

PENDEKATAN MODEN

ANDAIAN-ANDAIAN PENDEKATAN EKOLOGI

1. Tiada proses mental yang perlu berlaku di antara penerimaan rangsangan dan penghasilan respon.
2. Pemprosesan bermula daripada penerimaan rangsangan yang releven daripada persekitaran; sistem persepsi menentukan rangsangan yang releven.
3. Setiap maklumat persekitaran mempunyai makna yang spesifik, maklumat memasuki sistem biologi secara serentak menerusi reseptor, pemprosesan berlaku secara selari.
4. Kawalan motor berlaku di peringkat periferi dan peringkat pusat menjalankan fungsi projeksi berdasarkan maklumat daripada periferi.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING CONCEPT : Strength Training

Strange is a vary important component of physical fitness for high performance sport. It exerts great influence on other physical fitness component such as; balance, agility, power, and speed besides playing a significant role in the prevention of injuries to a sportsman. The scope of strange training is board with various methods, systems and exercise to choose from. Regardless of which method or system that a coach chooses to adopt, understanding of the fundamentals will assure the safety and effectiveness of the strength-training program.

The strength needed for a sprinter to explode from the blocks is different to the strength needed by a weight lifter to lift a 200 kg barbell. This therefore implies that there are different types of strength.

Objective of Strength Training

1. Prevention of injuries particularly to soft tissues
2. Optimize performance potential

What Are The Classification of strength?

1. Specific Strength – the strength of muscle (prime mover) that are particular to movement involve in sport.
2. Maximum Strength – the highest force the neuromuscular system can perform during a maximum voluntary contraction.
3. Muscular Endurance – the muscle’s ability to sustain work for a prolonged time.
4. Power – the combination of strength and speed, and the ability to perform maximum force in the shortest time.
5. Absolute Strength (AS) – the ability of a athlete to exert maximum force regardless of body weight involuntary.
6. Relative Strength (RS) – the ratio between an athlete’s absolute strength and his/her body weight (RS=AS/BW)
7. Reserve Strength – the difference between maximal strength and the actual load or effort to perform a task.  

Strength Training Exercise Classification

1. Core exercise
2. Assistance exercise
3. Structural
4. Power

Biomechanical Principles in Strength Training

1. Safe/effective range of motion (ROM)
2. Natural path of movement
3. To lock the working joints
4. To contract (tense) the target muscle only
5. Lumbar stability factor
6. Proper body alignment (subject to, line of resistance)
7. Avoid locking out the hinge joints (elbow and knee)
8. Observe the line of pull of muscle

Periodization Model for Strength Training

Anatomical adaptation

Hypertrophy

Muscular endurance/maximal strength

Conversion to power/endurance/speed

Basic Terminologies in Strength Training

• Isotonic Contraction – contraction in which the muscle shortens with varying tension while lifting a constant load.

              Concentric Contraction – tension in muscle while muscle is shortening

              Eccentric Contraction – tension in muscle while muscle is lengthening

• Isometric Contraction – tension in muscle but muscle length remains unchanged
• Isokinetic Contraction – constant speed contraction in muscle while shortening or lengthening
• Delayed Onset of Muscular Soreness (DOMS) – pain and stiffness that occur 1 to 2 days after the performance of exercise that is of a type or intensity uncommon to the performer.
• Momentary Muscular Failure (MMF) – is characterized by the last repetition in a set  targeted muscle fibers and motor units achieve 100% recruitment

Sports Nutrition

Fluid Requirement

Up to 55% to 60% the adult body is made up of water, equivalent in volume to 10 gallons or 40 liters. It is therefore vital in transporting nutrients and oxygen around the body and getting rid of waste matter via the kidneys in urine. The sweating mechanism enables the maintenance of body temperature. Water is needed for many to the chemical reactions that take place during digestion, to keep joints and the eyes well lubricated and to facilitate swallowing besides maintaining blood volume and pressure. 

• Importance to Performance
• Dehydration
•  General recommendation

Introduction to Energy Requirements

It is commonly believed that energy is good and calories are bad or even fattening. This is myth. In fact calories or more correctly referred to as kilocalories (kcal) are just a way of measuring energy. The metric equivalents are joules and kilojoules (1 kcal equivalent to 4.184 kjoules). The human body is like a car, and as such, needs source of fuel or energy in other to function properly. Individual energy requirements depend on a number of factors, based mainly on energy expenditure. There are 2 components of energy expenditure namely basal metabolic rate (BMR) and physical activity level (PAL).

Recommended Dietary Allowances for Energy             Age (year)                                   Energy (kcal)
Infants 0.0  - 0.5             0.5 – 1.5	650 850
Children                1– 3                4 - 6                7 – 10	1,300 1,800 2,000
Males 11- 14 15 – 18 19 – 24 25 – 50 50 ++	2,500 3,000 2,900 2,900 2.300
Females 11 -14 15 -18 19 – 24 25 – 50 50 ++ Pregnant Lactating 1st 6 mo 2nd 6 mo	2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200 1,900 + 300 + 300 + 500 + 500

BMR = 14.7 (54.4)  +  496  =  1,296 kcal

TDEE = PAL x  BMR  =  1.56 x 1,200  =  2,200 kcal

The BMR is the total amount of energy expended when the body is apparently at rest : that is, it refers to the work of breathing, contraction of the heart, circulation of the blood, kidney function, and so on, including the metabolism of all the body’s living cells. These are all essential functions and closely represent the minimal total metabolism of the body, though it may be further reduced during sleep. The BMR for an adult woman of average body size would be about 1400 kcal/day and for an average man about 1700 kcal/day. These amounts account for roughly 60% – 70% of the total daily energy expenditure.

Physical activity obviously affects energy expenditure. Its influence on energy balance can go in either direction. With increased physical activity the extent of the greater energy expenditure will obviously depend on the intensity and duration of the expended is sufficiently large, this leads to a state of negative energy balance and part of the energy which would normally be supplied by the food will be obtained from the breakdown of energy stories (mostly from fat). The consequence is a reduction of body weight, and increased physical activity is indeed often prescribed as a treatment for obesity – albeit not always with marked success.

On the other hand, if physical activity is reduced, the requirement for energy is also diminished, and less food needs to be eaten – which often causes dissatisfaction. Because the situations is basically disheartening, the end result is often a gradual increase if fatness and body weight.

What are the daily energy requirements ?

Personal energy requirement = basic energy requirements  +  extra energy requirements

Basic energy requirements (BER)

·    For every Kg of body weight 1.3 kcal is required every hour. (an athlete weighing 50 kg would require 1.3 X 24 hrs X 50 kg = 1560 kcal/day)

Extra energy requirements (EER)

·     For each hours training your require an additional 8.5 kcal for each kg of body weight. (for a two hour training session our 50 kg athlete would require 8.5 X 2 hrs X 50 kg = 850 kcal)

·     An athlete weighing 50 kg who trains for two hours would require an intake of approx. 2410 kcal (BER + EER = 1560 + 850 =  2410)