ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Natural Systems

SPEED

“Pure” sprinting speed refers to the natural ability to achieve a very high rate of acceleration and to cover a short distance (60-100m) in a very short time. It is obviously the main pre-requisite for successful performance in the short sprints (100 and 200m) but it also plays an important role in the 400m and is of some advantage to the 800m and 1,500m runner. However, it has no relevance to distances of 5,000m and over. The term speed, therefor, is relative; for the marathon runner it will refer to the ability to run a shoter distance such as, 5,000m or 10,000m in a very fast time. Pure sprinting speed is of no benefit to him and his type of endurance is useless to the 100m runner.

There are three basic types of work-out used for the improvement of speed: (1) Maximum Effort Running. This involves a very high rate of striding coupled with an effective stride length. Distances of 20 to 60 meters are run at maximum speed, from a standing or a crouch start, on the straight or around a bend. 10 to 15 repetitions may be run over regular or variable distances. It is most effective gradually to increase the langth of the fast runs but with quite long recovery pauses (about 3-6 minutes) in order to maintain the high quality of the work-out. (2) Pace Running. This accustoms the runner to racing speed and helps to develop an optimum, even distributionof effort. It is generally best to run less than the racing distance. A crouch start, from blocks, should be used, either on the stright or on a bend. The effort should correspond to that needed for the aimed-at peformance. Repetitionshould be just 3-6 with very adequate (10 minutes) recovery. (3) Changes of Pace. These help to develop the ability to accelerate to top speed while maintaining good relaxation. The runs may take the form of (i) Progressions (run increasing in speed) or (ii) Regressions (run decreasing in speed) or (iii) Accekerations (full speed runs) or a mixture of the three. These will be interspersed with easy recovery runs.

The ‘fast’ runs should be between 80 to 150 meters and the recovery period should be about 10 minutes.

PRESSURE VERY HARMFUL

Heart patients be encouraged to manage their stress levels. Studies show that heart disease patients learn to manage their stress will be reduced by 77 percent to a heart attack or cardiac surgery than patients who only received usual care.

At school, a teachers especially those related to students discipline are often under pressure. Anger against students at school are the lifestyle factors that influence heart disease among teachers, especially teachers discipline. The risk of suffering a heart attack discipline among teachers increased each year. For those who have suffered a heart attack disorders, the overall risk of suffering a heart attack increased by 2.3 times in two hours when depressed and angry.

Each episode of anger trigger psychological reactions in the body and cause the heart to beat rapidly, increased blood pressure and coronary artery narrowing. To discipline teachers who have heart problems, anger can reduce blood flow to the heart and eventually cause a heart attack.

It is important that all teachers in school discipline more aware of their duties in order to maintain a healthy heart. Most of the teachers at school are generally not aware of and practicing these habits. As a result many teachers are lying in hospital suffering from late stages of heart disease and need treatment very expensive. 


Discipline in school is to be controlled, but remember ! The main health and remind our children at home. I write this, not to undermine and belittle the task of teachers to discipline, but realized after my good friend and also a dedicated teacher discipline at a school in JB, is now in ICU Sultanah Aminah Hospital. Hopefully he is recovered to normal and can go out with me again 'nge-teh’ ... amin.

PASANGAN dan PENYAKIT JANTUNG

Corak kehidupan seseorang itu akan mempengaruhi tahap kesihatannya. 

Satu daripada faktor yang mempengaruhi kesihatan jantung adalah sokongan daripada pasangan kita. 

Pasangan kita sebenarnya akan membantu di antara satu sama untuk mempengaruhi corak tabiat gaya hidup sihat untuk jantung yang sihat. 

Beritish Family Heart (1997) dalam kajiannya terhadap 1,477 orang lelaki berusia 40 hingga 59 tahun bersama isteri masing-masing telah dijemput secara rawak untuk menjalani pemeriksaan keluarga di 13 kawasan di Britain. 

Selepas setahun, 1,204 pasangan diperiksa sekali lagi dan didapati mereka yang dapat mengurangkan faktor risiko penyakit jantung mempunyai pasangan yang ingin mengurangkan risiko tersebut. 

Kesimpulan yang dibuat terhadap ujian tersebut ialah, setiap orang boleh mengurangkan risiko penyakit jantung apabila pasangan mereka bercadang untuk melakukan perkara yang sama juga. (Sumber: Persatuan Jantung Malaysia)

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Natural Systems

HILLS

The principal aim of hill running is to develop strength. The type of strength achieved will be influenced by the precise method used : (1) Short, 40-80m very steep uphill runs, with a maximum of 12 repetitions and generous recovery intervals (3-6 minutes) will improve power (speed strength) (2) Intermediate, 100-150 meters, fairly steep, uphill runs; 10-12 repetitions with short recovery runs: for development of strength/endurance (anaerobic) (3) Long, 200-300 meters, slight uphill runs, 15-20 repetitions with fairly short recovery runs for improvement of general endurance (4) Hill circuits, 400-600 meters, up and downhill. 4-6 repetitions, moderate recovery for variety and overall effect on endurance and speed.

MEKANISMA UMUM REFLEKS / MONOSINAPTIK (M1)

Mono Sinaptik = Satu Sinaps

Refleks mono sinaptik dikenali sebagai refleks antogenetik (refleks dimana penerimaan stimulus dan penghasilan aksi berlaku pada otot yang sama). Ciri unik yang membezakan refleks monosinaptik dengan refleks-refleks involuntri yang lain ialah; berlakunya sinaps neuron sesori dan neuron motor tanpa penglibatan interneuron. 

Kapisiti/keupayaan otot - Aferen 1a : sensetif terhadap regangan; Aferen 1b : sensetif terhadap ketegangan (tenson).

Apabila mengalami keadaan luar biasa(berfungsi dalam intensiti terlalu tinggi), aferen 1a akan menghantar maklumat regangan. Kadangkala maklumat aferen 1a akan mengalami maklumat regangan yang amat tinggi menyebabkan sistem tadi akan mengalami tenson (ketegangan) dan seterusnya akan menyebabkan aferen 1b beraktivasi dan akan berlakunya tenson nutral

The Tendon Reflex

The Stretch Reflex

CONTOH : REFLEKS TENDON PATELA

Merupakan contoh refleks involuntri paling ringkas. Neuron motor a hanya bersinaps dengan otot rangka. Aferen 1a tidak bercabang menyebabkan ia tidak bersinaps pada interneuron dan sinaps hanya berlaku secara terus tanpa melalui interneuron.. Aferen 1a merupakan aferen yang berinebasi (sejenis neuron pada spindel otot sensori). Tindakbalas saraf (Latensi) adalah di antara 30 - 40 msec. Kawasan yang paling sensetif terhadap rangsangan ialah di kawasan spindel otot.

Patella tendon reflexes

Stretch or Deep Tendon

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Natural Systems

FARTLEK

This type of training emanated for Sweden and can be interpreted as ‘speed-play’; i.e. running with a continuous variation of speed and distance. The terrain should be as varied as possible and the total distance run should be 10-15km. The greater part of the running should be at an easy pace (recovery) but medium pace stretches of 200-600 meters, progressive (accelerating) runs of 150-300 meters and fast stretches of 50 – 100 meters (and uphill and downhill stretches of 100 – 200 meters) should be included to provide the main training stimulus. Woodland paths provide the ideal resilient sort of surface for this type of training. 

JENIS-JENIS GERAK BALAS / LAKUAN MOTOR

Perbezaan gerak balas involuntri dengan gerak balas voluntri adalah pengelibatan saraf pusat. Gerak balas voluntri akan melibatkan keseluruhan sistem saraf pusat sementara gerak balas involuntri hanya melibatkanperingkat pemprosesan peringkat rendah.

KOMPONEN SARAF ASAS BAGI PENGHASILAN LAKUAN MOTOR

ASAS NEUROFISIOLOGI DALAM PENGHASILAN LAKUAN MOTOR

Dua Fungsi Mejor Sistem Motor Biologi:

Menghasilkan Lakuan Motor – gerak balas; lokomotor (pergerakan mendatar dan pergerakan herizontal); bukan lokomotor (tiada pergerakan mendatar dan pergerakan herizontal)

Mengekalkan Stabiliti – mengekalkan imbangan; menghindarkan gangguan makinikal ( mengelak bentesan ketik bermain bola)

HIRAKI KAWALAN MOTOR DI SISTEM SARAF PUSAT

Pemprosesan Peringkat Tinggi – Basal Ganglia dan Sereberum

Pemprosesan Peringkat Pertengahan dan Tinggi – Koteks seberal
Pemprosesan Peringkat Paling Rendah - Spinal Cord

HIRAKI KAWALAN MOTOR DI SISTEM SARAF PUSAT

Pergerakan asas tidak melibatkan pemprosesan peringkat tinggi. Bila tindakbalas berterusan, maka tindakbalas peringkat tinggi terlibat.

PEMBELAJARAN MOTOR – PENDEKATAN MODEN

PERSPEKTIF BERNSTAIN

Di dalam Perspektif Bernstain - PERSEKITARAN akan mempengaruhi SISTEM BIOLOGI dan SISTEM BIOLOGI pula akan mempengaruhi objektif PERSEKITARAN. Kedua-duanya akan mewujudkan hubungan sistematik.

TEORI SISTEM DINAMIK

Di dalam teori ini, lakuan motor adalah sebagai hasil interaksi SISTEM BIOLOGI dengan PERSEKITARAN. Terdapat tiga system mekanikal di dalam persekitaran iaitu griviti, inertia dan geseran. Ianya merupakan daya-daya ekstrinsik dan bersifat dinamik.

KONSEP KAWALAN MOTOR TEORI SISTEM DINAMIK

Ianya merupakan teori yang terkini dan di dalam teori ini, penghasilan lakuan motor adalah daripada kecekapan system biologi ‘mengawal darjah’ kebebasan lakuan yang mampu diwujudkan.

Permis Utama Teori Sistem Dinamik

Ianya merupakan satu idea kawalan motor secara ascending (bottom-up approach). Pemprosesan kawalan berlaku di peringkat periferi dan system saraf pusat berfungsi sebagai mediator. Kemampuan kawalan peringkat periferi natijah: sifat self organizing sistem-sistem yang terlibat; kawalan darjah kebebasan.

PEMBEAJARAN MOTOR - (PENDEKATAN KLASIK)

Perspektif Sherrington Teori Refleks (1906) dengan permis-permis berikut : Refleks sebagai unit gerakbalas di dalam sistem saraf; Lakuan motor terhasil daripada rangkaian refleks beraktivasi(ada satu sistem yang menggerakan) secara bersiri; Perkembangan dan aktivasi refleks mempunyai hairaki (rangsang berlaku dari hairaki peringkat rendah ke peringkat tinggi); Tiada pergerakan yang boleh dighasilkan sekiranya refleks paling primitif tidak diaktivasikan.

HIRAKI REFLEKS

Refleks Spinal (refleks paling primitif di mana refleks yang hanya melibatkan tindakbalas sehingga ke peringkat spinal cod sahaja); Refleks Brainstem; Refleks Midbrain dan Refleks Voluntari (melibatkan otak)

BUKTI KEWUJUDAN HAIRAKI REFLEKS

Ekspiramen deaferentasi  ke atas seekor monyet – Proses memutuskan hubungan sesori di antara sistem periferi dan sistem pusat iaitu deaferentasi subjek secara isilateral:

Keputusannya – Tiada lakuan motor pada bahagian yang dideaferentasikan.

Kesimpulannya – Tiada lakuan motor kerana tiada aktivasi refleks spinal.

PENOLAKAN TEORI REFLEKS : (Graham 1911)

Eksprimen Deaferentasi Bilateral Terhadap Subjek:

Keputusan – Dalam keadaan biasa, tiada lakuan motor pada bahagian yang dideaferentasikan. Namun begitu, apabila ada rangsangan persekitaran yang sesuai, lakuan motor pada bahagian yang dideaferentasikan, lakuan motor boleh dihasilkan.

Kesimpulan – Penghasilan lakuan motor tidak memerlukan aktivasi refleks paling primitif (refleks spinal).

Keadaan ini disebut sebagai Central Patern Generator di mana : Rangkaian neuron yang berkemampuan mengaktivasikan corak lakuan motor lazim; Penghasilan setiap lakuan melibatkan pelbagai interaksi di peringkat sistem saraf. Lakuan lazim akan membina rangkaian neuron, iaitu ibarat kod kepada pergerakan tersebut. Apabila terdedah kepada persekitaran, di mana lakuan lazim dihasilkan, CPG(hanya konsep) akan diaktivasikan.

PENOLAKAN TEORI REFLEKS – (Lashley 1917)

Rawatan Pesakit Deaferentasi Secara Kemalangan:

Pesakit mengalami kecederaan akibat tertembak di bahagian spinal dan pesakit tidak mampu menerima maklumat sensori baru. Tetapi pesakit menunjukkan keupayaan untuk menghasilkan lakuan-lakuan lazim.

Kesimpulan – Terdapat salinan eferen bagi lakuan motor. Salinan Eferen Lakuan Motor terbahagi dua: Lakuan Involuntri (luar kawal) dan Lakuan Voluntri (dalam kawal).

Salinan Eferen Lakuan Voluntri diandaikan sebagai hasil sampingan (bahagian product) interaksi sistem saraf dalam menghasilkan lakuan lazim dan diandaikan terbentuk di Koteks Serebral. Bebarapa salinan eferen berpotensi membentuk satu set arahan lagi untuk mengspesifikasikan sesuatu lakuan motor yang khusus. Ianya merupakan satu konsep Program Motor.

Central Pattern Generator dan Program Motor merupakan satu konsep yang mengemukakan idea bahawa terdapat “kod” bagi semua lakuan motor di peringkat sistem saraf. Ianya akan memberi implikasi terhadap mekanisme kawalan motor dalam kontekS Sistem Saraf Pusat dan sistem Pinggiran.

TEORI HIRAKI

Teori yang mengandaikan bahawa semua aspek kawalan motor dari segi perancangan dan perlaksanaan adalah tanggungjawab pusat-pusat kortikal yang terdapat pada sistem saraf pusat. CNS diandaikan sebagai pusat kawalan peringkat tinggi atau peringkat eksekutif.

PERMIS UTAMA TEORI HAIRAKI

Merupakan idea kawalan motor secara descending (top-down approach). Berbagai pemprosesan berlaku di peringkat pusat dan ‘hasil’ pemprosesan tersebut akan dihantar ke sistem periferi.

  

PERSPEKTIF-PERSPEKTIF KAWALAN MOTOR

Pendekatan Klasik (perspektif Sherrington)

Mekanisme kawalan motor dilihat dalam konteks fisiologi gerakbalas (pergerakan hanya dilihat akibat daripada sistem saraf). Fokus kawalan terhadap tindakbalas yang berlaku dalam sistem biologi.

Pendekatan Moden (perspektif Bernstein)

Mekanisme kawalan motor dilihat dalam konteks fisiologi aktiviti (pengaruh persekitaran dalam mempengaruhi pergerakan). Fokus kawalan terhadap tindakbalas yang berlaku di antara sistem biologi dengan persekitaran.

PEMBELAJARAN MOTOR – Kawalan Motor

Kawalan Motor : Disiplin ilmu sains lakuan motor manusia mengenai makenisme-makenisme kawalan pada sistem biologi yang berperanan di dalam pengawalan postur dan penghasilkan pergerakan.

Kefahaman Kawalan Motor : Kawalan motor malibatkan penjelasan mengenai apa yang dikawal (kualiti pergerakan yang mampu dihasilkan), dan bagaimana berlakunya organisasi semua subproses yang terlibat dalam proses kawalan serta makenisme berlakunya peningkatan pada tahap kawalan.

Sub Disiplin Kawalan Motor ; (Perkembangan Motor) – Fokus kepada perubahan yang berlaku kepada makenisme kawalan motor natijah dari proses-proses tumbesaran, perkembangan, kematangan dan ketuaan. (Pembelajaran Motor) – Fokus kepada perubahan yang berlaku pada makenisme kawalan motor natijah proses-proses ekstrinsik seperti praktis dan adaptasi fisiologi.

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Natural Systems

CONTINUOUS RUNNING

‘Steady’ runs may be used to develop aerobic capacity i.e. to improve the efficiency of the relation between oxygen uptake and energy output. They are best carried out over a varied undulating terrain and on not too hard a surface. If roads are used, extra care should be taken to wear well cushioned shoes that give protection against the jar of the hard surface.

Long ‘slow’ runs of about 25 km (about 1.5 – 2 hours). The pulse count should not exceed 160 per minute (50% - 60% of the VO2 max). Strictly for the development of aerobic capacity and facilitates the utilisation of fatty acids (lipides).

Medium pace runs, 15 – 20 km (about 1 hour’s running). Pulse count between 170 -180 (75% 0f maximum oxygen uptake); to develop aerobic power; i.e. the capacity to maintain the highest possible speed without going through the anaerobic threshold.

Progressive or varying pace: (approximately 45 minutes).

Short, fast and slow runs, e.g. 12 – 20 X (40m fast + 40m slow), or for a distance of 1 – 3 Km, fast runs of 25 – 30m + slow runs of 70m, 2 – 4 times with 3 minutes for recovery.

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Types Of interval Training

FOR AEROBIC ENDURANCE

Extensive :

Aerobic capacity. Pulse rate up to 170.

Intensive :

Aerobic threshold. Pulse rate up to 180.

Distances :

100m to 400m

Times :

Depends on athlete’s ability but as an approximate (introductory) guide – 17 seconds for 100m; 32 seconds for 200m and 70 seconds for 400m. This corresponds to about 75% effort.

Recovery Intervals :

Approximately 45 seconds between 100m runs; 60-90 seconds for 200m runs and 2 minutes for 400m runs. They should preferably be active; i.e. jogging back to the start.

Beginners will use fewer repetitions, at a slower pace and with longer recovery ‘pauses’. Improvement will be brought about by first gradually increasing the number of repetitions, then by reducing the set times of the runs, and lastly, by reducing the langth of the recovery ,pauses’.

Pulse control is important. The pulse count should not exceed 180 at the end of the running interval and the next run should not be started until the pulse has fallen below 140, preferably 120.

PACE WORK

Pace Work :

long intervals.

Distance :

500m to 5000m according to speciality. 2 minutes to 15 minutes.

Time :

Slightly slower than that of the event in competition (75%).

Repetitions :

4 – 8

Recovery :

3 – 6 minutes,

Competitive pace :

Distance :

A third, half or two-thirds of the speciality.

Time :

Depending on the distance of the event (a little faster than that of the event itself).

Repetitions :

3-5  (few and preferably over the same distance).

Recovery :

8 – 12 minutes.

FOR SPEED ENDURANCE (Anaerobic capacity)

Aims to prepare the athlete for the stress of intense effort and improve the ability to endure the lack of oxygen and the build-up of lactic acid.

Distance :

Alactic 30-60m (without a build-up of lactate); Lactic 150-500m

Times : Up to 90% of the athlete’s best performance.

Repetitions :

10-15 (2-3 sets); 4-12 (2-3 sets)

Recovery :

Short 1’-3’ : 6’-8’; Short 3’-5’ : long 10’-12’

This training is very exhausting an is not recommended for young beginners.

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING - Elements

Distance : Fixed or variable. Could be duration of time.

Time : Taken for each run (could be substituted by intensity of effort).

Repetitions : Number of run, eg. 10 X 100m. May also be arranged in ‘sets’, eg. 2 X (5 X 100) with a longer ‘rest’ interval between each set.

Pauses : Intervals for partial recovery. This type of training is easily quantifiable and controllable, but it can become extremely punishing and monotonous. Great care therefore should be taken in introducing it to very young athletes. It is normally carried out on the track but it is possible to use measured stretches of road or path or even countryside. 

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING - Repetition System

The basic method is to divide a distance into sections of running with intermediate  recovery  intervals;  for example, an 800m runner might plan to run 8 X 200m with recovery intervals of a 200m jog or about 90 secounds. In this way it is possible to run a total distance of 1600m at a faster pace than that of a sustained 800m run.

ATHLETIC : PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING – Aims

The aim of all training is to inprove the abilities essential for successful athletic performance. Of the many qualities needed by the track athlete, such as strength, speed, endurance, suppleness and skill, the two basic ones are SPEED and ENDURANCE.

Speed can be defined as the capacity to run a fixed distance in the shortest possible time. Speed, in a greater or less degree is, therefore a component of all track events and some work at competition pace or faster is essential for all running training.

Endurance can be of two types – Aerobic (with oxygen) endurance, wjich applies to activities of long duration but moderate intensity in which the energy expended is balanced by the intake of oxygen; Anaerobic (without oxygen) endurance characterized by activities of shorter duration but high intensity in which the intake of oxygen is insufficient to balance te output of energy and so the muscles incur an ‘oxygen debt’

Running Trainning may be divided into two main systems: Repetition systems – generally carried out on the track and ; ‘Natural’ systems – carried out away from the track, preferably in the country-side or else on the road.

A mixture of these two systems will give the best results.